Mechanics of Advanced Composite Structures

Mechanics of Advanced Composite Structures

Experimental Investigation and RSM-Based Optimization of Phenolic/PTFE/SiC Composites

Document Type : Research Article

Authors
Milad Aghalari
Reza Azarafza
Jafar Eskandari Jam
Ali Davar
Amir Kaveh
Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing Technologies, Malek Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
10.22075/macs.2026.37851.1859
Abstract
Resole phenolic resin, valued for its excellent heat resistance, strong adhesion, and chemical stability, has long been utilized in aerospace, automotive, and protective material applications. However, its relatively low toughness and brittleness limit broader use. In this study, the thermal and mechanical characteristics of phenolic composites were improved by incorporating Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) powder, Silicon carbide (SiC) particles, carbon, and high-silica fibers. A D-optimal response surface methodology (RSM) design was employed to evaluate the effects of fiber type, curing temperature, and particle loading. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed that the addition of reinforcing particles altered fracture morphology by promoting crack deflection and improving resin–fiber interaction. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results confirmed a 7% increase in glass transition temperature (Tg) with 10% particle loading, indicating enhanced thermal stability. Mechanical testing demonstrated that the addition of 10 wt% reinforcing particles enhanced both tensile and flexural properties, regardless of the fiber type; however, the fiber type itself had a significant influence on performance. Carbon fiber composites achieved the highest tensile strength (264.8 MPa), which was 13% above hybrid laminates (235.2 MPa) and 185% above high-silica composites (93.0 MPa). Conversely, hybrid laminates exhibited the best flexural strength (219.9 MPa), exceeding carbon by 72% and high-silica by 150%. Quantitative ANOVA validation confirmed the reliability of the developed models for both tensile and flexural strength. Optimal parameters—10% particle loading, 180°C curing with carbon fibers for tensile strength, and hybrid fibers for flexural strength—offer clear, actionable guidance for industrial applications.
Keywords
Resole
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Silicon carbide
D-Optimal algorithm
hybrid laminates
Subjects
[1]    Mazumdar, S., 2001. Composites manufacturing: materials, product, and process engineering. CRC Press
[2]    Gardziella, A., Pilato, L.A. and Knop, A., 2013. Phenolic resins: chemistry, applications, standardization, safety, and ecology. Springer Science & Business Media.
[3]    Jawaid, M. and Asim, M., 2021. Phenolic polymers-based composite materials. Springer.
[4]    Rogers, M.E., Long, T.E. and Turner, S.R., 2003. Introduction to synthetic methods in step‐growth polymers. Synthetic Methods in Step-Growth Polymers, pp. 1–16.
[5]    Burkhart, T., Oberressl, P. and Oldring, P., 1998. The chemistry and application of phenolic resins or phenolplasts. Wiley.
[6]    Ratna, D., 2009. Handbook of Thermoset Resins. iSmithers Shawbury, UK.
[7]    Gouda, P.S., Kodancha, K.G. and Siddaramaiah, D.J., 2013. Experimental and numerical investigations on fracture behavior of high silica glass/satin textile fiber reinforced hybrid polymer composites. Advanced Materials Letters, 4(11), pp. 827–835.
[8]    Wei, Q.H., Wang, C.H., Wang, H.S., Li, L., Shao, C.T. and Dong, B., 2014. Study on process and properties of needling silica fiber reinforced silica composites. Advanced Materials Research, 833, pp. 146–149.
[9]    Li, Z., Zheng, R. and Li, L., 2013. Experimental investigation on heat-resistant layer of high silica phenolic composites in ramjet chamber. Journal of Propulsion Technology, 34(1), pp. 76–80.
[10]    Feng, B., Wang, X., Wu, Z., Yang, Y. and Pan, Z., 2021. Performance of anchorage assemblies for CFRP cables under fatigue loads. Structures, 29, pp. 947–953.
[11]    Guo, R., Li, C. and Xian, G., 2023. Water absorption and long-term thermal and mechanical properties of carbon/glass hybrid rod for bridge cable. Engineering Structures, 274, p. 115176.
[12]    Afshar, A., Mihut, D. and Chen, P., 2020. Effects of environmental exposures on carbon fiber epoxy composites protected by metallic thin films. Journal of Composite Materials, 54(2), pp. 167–177.
[13]    Rahmani, H., Najafi, S.H.M. and Ashori, A., 2014. Mechanical performance of epoxy/carbon fiber laminated composites. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 33(8), pp. 733–740.
[14]    Wang, D.Y., 2016. Novel fire retardant polymers and composite materials. Woodhead Publishing.
[15]    Ghiaskar, A. and Nouri, M.D., 2023. Investigating fracture behavior and energy absorption of flexible hybrid biocomposites with soft–hard rubber/biofiller layers and fabric impregnated with matrix under high-velocity impact. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 45(11), p. 585.
[16]    Ghiaskar, A. and Taghipoor, H., 2024. Investigating mechanical properties and energy absorption of elastomeric polymer nanocomposites containing cellulose nanofibers in tensile, quasi-static compression, and high strain rate tests. Physica Scripta, 99,(8), p. 085963.
[17]    Ghiaskar, A. and Nouri, M.D., 2023. A novel flexible biocomposite with hemp woven fabric and natural rubber based on lignin green filler: investigation numerical and experimental under high-velocity impact. Physica Scripta, 98(10), p. 105307.
[18]    Ghiaskar, A. and Nouri, M., 2022. High-velocity impact behavior of lignin/NR/hemp green composite: a comparative study. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 44, pp. 1–20.
[19]    Hasanzadeh, I., Eskandari, M.J. and Daneshmand, H., 2022. Polyurethane acrylate/multiwall carbon nanotube composites as temperature and gas sensors: Fabrication, characterization, and simulation. Diamond and Related Materials, 130, p. 109484.
[20]    Mouritz, A.P. and Gibson, A.G., 2007. Fire properties of polymer composite materials. Springer Science & Business Media.
[21]    Zhang, H. et al., 2022. Comparative study on the mechanical, tribological, and thermal properties of POM composites filled with different PTFE. Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, 35(9), pp. 1319–1341.
[22]    Panin, S. et al., 2020. The effect of annealing of milled carbon fibers on the mechanical and tribological properties of solid‐lubricant thermoplastic polyimide‐based composites. Polymer Engineering & Science, 60(11), pp. 2735–2748.
[23]    Basavaraj, E., Ramaraj, B. and Siddaramaiah, 2012. Investigations on the influence of polytetrafluoroethylene powder as a filler on physico-mechanical and wear characteristics of nylon 66/graphite composites. High Performance Polymers, 24(7), pp. 616–624.
[24]    Daneshmand, H., Eskandari, M.J. and Araghchi, M., 2023. Reinforced PTFE composites with atomized powder of Inconel 625 alloy for sealing application: Study of structural properties and molecular dynamics simulation. Materials Today Communications, 35, p. 10641.
[25]    Bera, T., Sethi, R.R. and Mohanty, S., 2024. Effect of silicon carbide particles on the mechanical, thermal and structural properties of recycled high-density polyethylene. Plastics, Rubber and Composites, 53(1), pp. 53–67.
[26]    Kumaresan, K., Chandramohan, G., Senthilkumar, M. and Suresha, B., 2012. Dynamic mechanical analysis and wear of carbon–epoxy composite filled with SiC. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 31(21), pp. 1435–144.
[27]    Basingala, P.K. and Neigapula, V.S.N., 2024. Enhancement of mechanical and thermal properties of carbon fiber phenolic resin composites using silicon carbide filler for thermal protection system applications.  Journal of Industrial Textiles, 54, pp. 1528083724126331.
[28]    Kasmaei, M.P.J., Alaei, M.H., Jam, J.E. and Soltani, S.A.K., 2024. Effect of SiC dominated with ZrB2 particles on the ablation and mechanical properties of carbon/novolac‐epoxy (EPN1180) composite at 3000° C. Polymer Composites, 45(17), pp. 15574–15589.
[29]    Lamidi, S., Olaleye, N., Bankole, Y., Obalola, A., Aribike, E. and Adigun, I., 2022. Applications of response surface methodology (RSM) in product design, development, and process optimization. IntechOpe.
[30]    Albooyeh, A., Soleymani, P. and Taghipoor, H., 2022. Evaluation of the mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-silica aerogel/epoxy nanocomposites: optimizing by response surface approach.  Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 136, p. 105513.
[31]    Myers, R.H., Montgomery, D.C. and Anderson-Cook, C.M., 2016. Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments. John Wiley & Sons.
[32]    Akintunde, A.M., Ajala, S.O. and Betiku, E., 2015. Optimization of Bauhinia monandra seed oil extraction via artificial neural network and response surface methodology: a potential biofuel candidate. Industrial Crops and Products, 67, pp. 387–394.
[33]    Okeleye, A.A. and Betiku, E., 2019. Kariya (Hildegardia barteri) seed oil extraction: comparative evaluation of solvents, modeling, and optimization techniques. Chemical Engineering Communications,  206(9), pp. 1181–1198.
[34]    Daneshpayeh, S., Ghasemi, F.A. and Ghasemi, I., 2017. Mechanical Properties of Nanocomposites Based on Polypropylene-Linear Low Density Polyethylene-Titanium Dioxide Nano Particles by Response Surface Methodology. Journal of Tabriz Mechanical Engineering, 7(7), pp. 903–101.
[35]    Yaghoobi, H. and Fereidoon, A., 2018. Modeling and optimization of tensile strength and modulus of polypropylene/kenaf fiber biocomposites using Box–Behnken response surface method. Polymer Composites, 39, pp. E463–E479.
[36]    Cantwell, W.J. and Morton, J., 1991. The impact resistance of composite materials—a review. Composites, 22(5), pp. 347–362.
[37]    Jeon, H. et al., 2017. A combined analytical formulation and genetic algorithm to analyze the nonlinear damage responses of continuous fiber toughened composites. Computational Mechanics, 60, pp. 393–408.
[38]    Ojha, S., Bisaria, H., Mohanty, S. and Kanny, K., 2024. Fractographic analysis of fiber‐reinforced polymer laminate composites for marine applications: A comprehensive review. Polymer Composites.
[39]    Jollivet, T., Peyrac, C. and Lefebvre, F., 2013. Damage of composite materials. Procedia Engineering, 66, pp. 746–758
[40]    Heslehurst, R.B., 2014. Defects and Damage in Composite Materials and Structures. CRC Press.
[41]    Talreja, R. and Singh, C.V., 2012. Damage and Failure of Composite Materials. Cambridge University Press.
[42]    Khan, A., Bhawani, S.A., Asiri, A.M. and Khan, I., 2018. Thermoset composites: preparation, properties and applications. Materials Research Forum LLC. 
[43]    Melati, A., Settar, A., Chetehouna, K., Okur, N. and Berkalp, O.B., 2023. Experimental analysis of the effect of natural fibers and SiC filler on the thermal behavior of green biocomposites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 140(38), p. e54430.
[44]    Wang, X., Chi, Y. and Cao, Y., 2014. The Effect of PTFE on mechanical, friction and wear properties of CF/PMMA composites.  Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, 27(9), pp. 1232–1238.
[45]    Li, A., Wang, S., Chen, Z., Liu, H. and Wang, H., 2022. The synergistic effect of SiC/R-GO composite on mechanical and tribological properties of thermosetting polyimide. Journal of Composite Materials,  56(2), pp. 267–278.
[46]    Arumugam, S et al., 2020. Investigations on the mechanical properties of glass fiber/sisal fiber/chitosan reinforced hybrid polymer sandwich composite scaffolds for bone fracture fixation applications. Polymers, 12(7), p. 1501.
[47]    Dong, C., 2020. Flexural properties of symmetric carbon and glass fibre reinforced hybrid composite laminates. Composites Part C: Open Access, 3(1), p. 100047.
[48]    Kumar, M., Kumar, S., 2024. Short literature survey on fiber-reinforced hybrid composites. Mechanics of Advanced Composite Structures, 11(2), pp. 425–452.
[49]    Gaitonde, V., Karnik, S., Davim, J. P., 2009. Some studies in metal matrix composites machining using response surface methodology. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 28(20), pp. 2445–2457.

Mechanics of Advanced Composite Structures
Volume 14, Issue 1 - Serial Number 29
In Progress
April 2027
Pages 237-254