Mechanics of Advanced Composite Structures

Mechanics of Advanced Composite Structures

Structural Evaluation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Composite Blade Using a Monitored Testing Bench

Document Type : Research Article

Authors
1 Multidisciplinary Laboratory of Exact and Applied Sciences, Superior school of Technology, Fkih Ben Saleh, Morocco
2 EMISys Research Team, E3S Research Center, Mohammadia School of Engineers, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco
3 Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory in Physics (M.R.L.P), Faculty of Applied Sciences, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, ‎Beni ‎Mellal, 23000, Morocco‎
4 Alkhalil Center, Private laboratory of Engineering Energy, Beni Mellal, Morocco
Abstract
Accurate prediction of blade fatigue behavior remains a critical challenge in wind energy applications. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the mechanical performance of a segmented 3D-printed composite prototype blade. To assess its stiffness characteristics, the blade was subjected to systematically applied load levels in the flapwise direction. The experimental campaign enabled detailed characterization of the blade’s stiffness and the initiation and evolution of damage as a function of applied loading and the number of fatigue cycles. A statistical analysis was performed to quantify the uncertainty and repeatability of the measured results. A specialized test bench was designed and constructed to accommodate fatigue testing of blades measuring 712 mm in length. The blade was subjected to controlled cyclic loading while its mechanical response was continuously monitored using a high-resolution imaging system. The collected data revealed a significant increase in total deformation energy of 77.5%, particularly near the root (point 1), and a corresponding decrease in stiffness of 77% after cyclic loading in the flapwise direction. These results provide critical insights into the blade’s structural health and dynamic response during service and have informed improvements in the manufacturing process to ensure that the final products meet stringent reliability and safety standards under severe operating conditions. The study was further evaluated by testing two blades with identical geometry and material properties, demonstrating that the derived results were accurate within an error margin not exceeding 10%.
Keywords
Subjects

[1]     Zhang, H., Liu, X., Cao, X., Zhang, N., and Law, A., 2025. Assessment of structural stability and power performance for a novel hybrid wind-solar-wave energy system. Scientific Reports, 16, 1240.
[2]     Elmousalami, H., Alnaser, A., and Hui, F., 2025. Sustainable AI-driven wind energy forecasting: Advancing zero-carbon cities and environmental computation. Artificial Intelligence Review, 58, 3.
[3]     El Bakkari, F. and Mounir, H., 2024. Compatible alternative energy storage systems for electric vehicles: Review of relevant technology derived from conventional systems. Energy, 288.
[4]     Khaldi, H., and Mounir, H., 2024. Comparative carbon footprint of electric and hydrogen vehicles: Insights from Morocco, Africa, and global energy transitions. Energy for Sustainable Development, 85.
[5]     Mansour, M., Tsongas, K., Tzetzis, D., and Antoniadis, A., 2018. Mechanical and dynamic behavior of fused filament fabrication 3D printed polyethylene terephthalate glycol reinforced with carbon fibers. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 57(16), pp. 1715–1725.
[6]     Aydın, Y., Cakiroglu, C., Bekdaş, G., and Geem, Z. W., 2025. Fatigue predictive modeling of composite materials for wind turbine blades using explainable gradient boosting models. Coatings, 15(3), 325.
[7]     Rajad, O., and Mounir, H., 2021. A review on the HAWCTB performance enhancement methods, numerical models and AI concept used for the blade composite structure assessment: Context of new Industry 5.0., pp. 1–6.
[8]     Ji, R., Zhao, L., Wang, K., Liu, F., Gong, Y., and Zhang, J., 2021. Effects of debonding defects on the postbuckling and failure behaviors of composite stiffened panel under uniaxial compression. Composite Structures, 256.
[9]     Otoguro, Y., Mochizuki, H., Takizawa, K. and Tezduyar, T.E., 2020. Space–time variational multiscale isogeometric analysis of a tsunami-shelter vertical-axis wind turbine. Computational Mechanics, 66(6), pp.1443-1460.
[10] Fertahi, S., Bouhal, T., Rajad, O., Kousksou, T., Arid, A., El Rhafiki, T., Jamil, A., Benbassou, A., et al., 2018. CFD performance enhancement of a low cut-in speed current vertical tidal turbine through the nested hybridization of Savonius and Darrieus. Energy Conversion and Management, 169, pp. 266–278.
[11] El-Harrach, et al., 2025. An aerodynamic optimization approach for wind turbine blades using proper generalized decomposition. Energies, 18(21), 5846.
[12] Cheng, X., Du, B., He, J., Long, W., Su, G., Liu, J., Fan, Z., and Chen, L., 2025. A review of thermoplastic composites on wind turbine blades. Composites Part B: Engineering, 299, 112411.
[13] Timme, S., Trappe, V., Korzen, M., and Schartel, B., 2017. Fire stability of carbon fiber reinforced polymer shells on the intermediate-scale. Composite Structures, 178, pp. 320–329.
[14] Carallo, G. A., Casa, M., Kelly, C., and Alsaadi, M., 2025. Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of traditional and new sustainable wind blade construction. Sustainability, 17(5), 2026.
[15] Geneid, A. A., Atia, M. R. A., and Badawy, A., 2022. Multi-objective optimization of vertical-axis wind turbine’s blade structure using genetic algorithm. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 69.
[16] Chen, X., Haselbach, P. U., Branner, K., and Madsen, S. H., 2019. Effects of different material failures and surface contact on structural response of trailing edge sections in composite wind turbine blades. Composite Structures, 226, 111306.
[17] Chen, X., Zhao, W., Zhao, X. L., and Xu, J. Z., 2014. Preliminary failure investigation of a 52.3 m glass/epoxy composite wind turbine blade. Engineering Failure Analysis, 44, pp. 345–350.
[18] Amarir, I., Mounir, H., Rajad, O., and Amadane, Y. (2023). Fatigue performance investigation on the automotive welded structure under damped loads using the Taguchi method. Heat Transfer, 52(1), pp. 162–192.
[19] Kheir, A., Mounir, H., Lafdaili, Z., Rajad, O., and Lagrat, I., 2023. Modeling and analysis of laminate structures of a pressurized hydrogen tank. E3S Web of Conferences, 469, 00022.
[20] Fertahi, S. E.-D., Bouhal, T., Arid, A., Kousksou, T., Jamil, A., Moujibi, N., and Benbassou, A., 2017. Thermo-mechanical strength analysis for energy storage improvement of horizontal storage tanks integrating evacuated tube collectors. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 42(49), pp. 29370–29383.
[21] Amarir, I., and Mounir, H., 2024. Experiment, simulation and investigation of the effect of different parameters on the durability of welded structure under damped loads for automobile utilization. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 18(1), pp. 493–508.
[22] Amarir, I., and Mounir, H., 2022. Fatigue analysis case study of welded profiles for automotive utilization. IET Conference Proceedings, 2022(1), pp. 160–163.
[23] Fertahi, S. E.-D., Rehman, S., Benini, E., Lahrech, K., Samaouali, A., Arbaoui, A., Kadiri, I., and Agounoun, R., 2025. Insights from the last decade in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) design and performance enhancement of Darrieus wind turbines. Processes, 13(2), 370.
[24] Fertahi, S. E.-D., Rehman, S., Lahrech, K., Samaouali, A., Arbaoui, A., Kadiri, I., and Agounoun, R., 2024. A review of comprehensive guidelines for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) validation in solar chimney power plants: Methodology and Manzanares prototype case study. Fluids, 9(11), 251.
[25] Belfkira, Z., Mounir, H., and El Marjani, A., 2021. Structural optimization of a horizontal axis wind turbine blade made from new hybrid composites with kenaf fibers. Composite Structures, 260, 113252.
[26] Chen, X., Berring, P., Madsen, S. H., Branner, K., and Semenov, S., 2019. Understanding progressive failure mechanisms of a wind turbine blade trailing edge section through subcomponent tests and nonlinear FE analysis. Composite Structures, 214, pp. 422–438.
[27] Rajad, O., Mounir, H., El Marjani, A., et al., 2022. Nonlinear modeling analysis of the coupled mechanical strength and stiffness enhancement of composite materials of a horizontal axis wind turbine blade (HAWTB). International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 16, pp. 1–24.
[28] Rajad, O., Mounir, H., and El Marjani, A., 2021. Modeling, understanding and enhancing the mechanical response of the HAWTB composite structure through the nonlinear FE analysis of a proposed sub-model. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 15(4), pp. 631–659.
[29] Wang, J., Huang, X., Wei, C., Zhang, L., Li, C., and Liu, W., 2021. Failure analysis at trailing edge of a wind turbine blade through subcomponent test. Engineering Failure Analysis, 105596.
[30] Liu, Z., Liang, J., He, Z., Liu, X., Liu, H., and Shao, Z., 2024. A developed fatigue analysis approach for composite wind turbine blade adhesive joints using finite-element submodeling technique. Engineering Failure Analysis, 164, 108701.
[31] Ezzaraa, I., Ayrilmis, N., Abouelmajd, M., Kitek Kuzman, M., Bahlaoui, A., Arroub, I., Bengourram, J., Lagache, M., and Belhouideg, S., 2023. Numerical modeling based on finite element analysis of 3D-printed wood-polylactic acid composites: A comparison with experimental data. Forests, 14(1).
[32] Balderrama-Armendáriz, C., Arbelaez-Rios, S., Cortes, D., Flores-Figueroa, J., Maldonado, A., and Sierra, A., 2024. Optimizing the user experience of additive manufacturing products through material driven design. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 19, pp. 5331–5346.
[33] Srivastava, A., Kumar, A., Kumar, P., Gautam, P., and Dogra, N., 2023. Research progress in metal additive manufacturing: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 12, pp. 1–17.
[34] Rouway, M., Nachtane, M., Tarfaoui, M., Chakhchaoui, N., Omari, L., Fraija, F., and Cherkaoui, O., 2021. 3D printing: Rapid manufacturing of a new small-scale tidal turbine blade. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 115, 07.
[35] Olivera, A. F., Chica, E., and Colorado, H. A., 2024. Design and manufacturing with 3D printing and life cycle analysis of a recyclable polymer-based H-Darrieus wind turbine. Engineered Science, 31, 1156.
[36] Kang, S., Kim, Y., Lee, J., Khosronejad, A., and Yang, X., 2022. Wake interactions of two horizontal axis tidal turbines in tandem. Ocean Engineering, 254, 111331.
[37] Amarir, I., Mounir, H., Rajad, O., and Amadane, Y., 2023. Fatigue performance investigation on the automotive welded structure under damped loads using the Taguchi method. Heat Transfer, 52(1), pp. 162–192.
[38] Guduru, K. K., and Srinivasu, G. S., 2024. 3D printed carbon fiber reinforced PLA composite using fused deposition modeling by Taguchi’s optimization: Influence of printing parameters. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 19, pp. 3921–3931.
[39] Rouway, M., Tarfaoui, M., Chakhchaoui, N., El Hachemi Omari, L., Fraija, F., and Cherkaoui, O., 2023. Additive manufacturing and composite materials for marine energy: Case of tidal turbine. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 10(6), pp. 1309–1319.
[40] Tarfaoui, M., Shah, O. R., and Nachtane, M., 2019. Design and optimization of composite offshore wind turbine blades. Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 141(5).
[41] Kam, T. Y., Su, H. M., and Huang, C. Y., 2017. Quasi-static buckling and first-ply failure loads of shear web reinforced glass-fabric composite wind blades. Composite Structures, 160, pp. 1225–1235.
[42] IEC, 2019. Wind energy generation systems—Part 1: Design requirements. IEC 61400-1.
[43] Germanischer Lloyd, 2010. GL design standard, guideline for the certification of wind turbines: Guideline for onshore wind-turbine certification. Hamburg, Germany.
[44] Babu, T., Kowser, A., and Islam Mukut, A. N. M., 2024. Numerical investigation of wind turbine blade materials and airfoil profiles to extract maximum wind energy. International Journal for Simulation and Multidisciplinary Design Optimization, 15, 25.
[45] Rajad, O., Mounir, H., Fertahi, S. E., and El Marjani, A., 2018. Fiber orientation effect on the behavior of the composite materials of the horizontal axis wind turbine blade (HAWTB). pp. 1–6.
[46] Zhu, Y., Lou, L., Zhou, A., Ma, Y., Sun, J., and Zhao, S., 2025. Comparison and analysis of major research methods for non-destructive testing of wind turbine blades. Review of Scientific Instruments, 96, 062001.
[47] Airfoil Tools, 2022. http://airfoiltools.com.
[48] Jang, Y., Kim, H., and Kang, K., 2022. Progressive failure analysis for 5 MW-class wind turbine composite blades with debonding damage based on CZM method. Applied Sciences, 12(24), 12973.
[49] Rajad, O., and Mounir, H., 2022. The stiffness assessment of the blade composite structure using a proposed sub-model arbitrary rectangular with delamination effect. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing.
[50] Valdivia-Camacho, M. A., Lopez Dubon, S., Cuthill, F., Munko, M. J., McCarthy, E. D., Alam, P., and O'Brádaigh, C. M., 2025. Clamping parameters in full-scale tidal turbine blade tests: A case study. Ocean Engineering, 327, 120722.
[51] Bernardini, L., McLinden, M. O., Yang, X., and Richter, M., 2024. How accurate are your experimental data? A more accessible gum-based methodology for uncertainty evaluation. International Journal of Thermophysics, 45.
[52] Tao, M., Ren, S., and Lao, C., 2024. Overview and comparison of common measurement uncertainty evaluation methods. Metrology Science and Technology, 68(6), pp. 40–48.
[53] Habibi, N., Jalid, A., Salih, A., and Essadek, M., 2023. Perpendicularity assessment and uncertainty estimation using coordinate measuring machine. International Journal of Metrology and Quality Engineering, 14.
[54] Rajad, O., Mounir, H., Rich, M., Belhouideg, S., Haidar, C., and El Kasri, A., 2024. Strength and stiffness characterization and enhancement of a horizontal axis wind turbine blade using an experimental fatigue test bench. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing, 18(1), pp. 149–158.
[55] Kou, H., Wei, K., Liu, Y., and Zhang, X., 2023. Stiffness degradation modeling for composite wind turbine blades based on full-scale fatigue testing. Journal of Beijing Institute of Technology, 33(2), pp. 123–136.
[56] Wang, Y., Li, Z., Zhou, H., and Chen, X., 2023. A common model for stiffness degradation of composites at material and product levels. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, 23, pp. 1550–1557.